this is a very good tutor for making circles and lines in code. its written by denthor of asphyxia. at the end you can find two procedures i use for  circles and lines in the blockart editor :) =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- ÕÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍ͸ ³ W E L C O M E ³ ³ To the VGA Trainer Program ³ ³ ³ By ³ ³ ³ DENTHOR of ASPHYXIA ³ ³ ³ ³ (updated by Snowman) ³ ³ ³ ÔÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍ; ³ ³ ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÙ ³ ÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÄÙ --==[ PART 3 ]==-- [Note: things in brackets have been added by Snowman. The original text has remained mostly unaltered except for the inclusion of C++ material] þ Introduction Greetings! This is the third part of the VGA Trainer series! Sorry it took so long to get out, but I had a running battle with the traffic department for three days to get my car registered, and then the MailBox went down. Ahh, well, life stinks. Anyway, today will do some things vital to most programs : Lines and circles. Watch out for next week's part : Virtual screens. The easy way to eliminate flicker, "doubled sprites", and subjecting the user to watch you building your screen. Almost every ASPHYXIA demo has used a virtual screen (with the exception of the SilkyDemo), so this is one to watch out for. I will also show you how to put all of these loose procedures into units. If you would like to contact me, or the team, there are many ways you can do it : 1) Write a message to Grant Smith in private mail here on the Mailbox BBS. 2) Write a message here in the Programming conference here on the Mailbox (Preferred if you have a general programming query or problem others would benefit from) 3) Write to ASPHYXIA on the ASPHYXIA BBS. 4) Write to Denthor, Eze or Livewire on Connectix. 5) Write to : Grant Smith P.O.Box 270 Kloof 3640 6) Call me (Grant Smith) at 73 2129 (leave a message if you call during varsity) NB : If you are a representative of a company or BBS, and want ASPHYXIA to do you a demo, leave mail to me; we can discuss it. NNB : If you have done/attempted a demo, SEND IT TO ME! We are feeling quite lonely and want to meet/help out/exchange code with other demo groups. What do you have to lose? Leave a message here and we can work out how to transfer it. We really want to hear from you! =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= þ Circle Algorithim You all know what a circle looks like. But how do you draw one on the computer? You probably know circles drawn with the degrees at these points : 0 ÜÛ³ÛÜ ÛÛÛ³ÛÛÛ 270 ----+---- 90 ÛÛÛ³ÛÛÛ ßÛ³Ûß 180 Sorry about my ASCII ;-) ... anyway, Pascal and C++ don't work that way ... they work with radians instead of degrees. (You can convert radians to degrees, but I'm not going to go into that now. Note though that in Pascal and C++, the circle goes like this : 270 ÜÛ³ÛÜ ÛÛÛ³ÛÛÛ 180 ----+---- 0 ÛÛÛ³ÛÛÛ ßÛ³Ûß 90 Even so, we can still use the famous equations to draw our circle ... (You derive the following by using the theorem of our good friend Pythagoras) Sin (deg) = Y/R Cos (deg) = X/R (This is standard 8(?) maths ... if you haven't reached that level yet, take this to your dad, or if you get stuck leave me a message and I'll do a bit of basic Trig with you. I aim to please ;-)) Where Y = your Y-coord X = your X-coord R = your radius (the size of your circle) deg = the degree To simplify matters, we rewrite the equation to get our X and Y values : Y = R*Sin(deg) X = R*Cos(deg) This obviousy is perfect for us, because it gives us our X and Y co-ords to put into our Putpixel routine (see Part 1). Because the Sin and Cos functions return a Real [long] value, we use a round function to transform it into an Integer. [Pascal] Procedure Circle (oX,oY,rad:integer;Col:Byte); VAR deg:real; X,Y:integer; BEGIN deg:=0; repeat X:=round(rad*COS (deg)); Y:=round(rad*sin (deg)); putpixel (x+ox,y+oy,Col); deg:=deg+0.005; until (deg>6.4); END; [C++] void Circle(int X, int Y, int rad, int col) { float deg = 0; do { X = round(rad * cos(deg)); Y = round(rad * sin(deg)); Putpixel (X+160, Y+100, col); deg += 0.005; } while (deg <= 6.4); } In the above example, the smaller the amount that deg is increased by, the closer the pixels in the circle will be, but the slower the procedure. 0.005 seem to be best for the 320x200 screen. NOTE : ASPHYXIA does not use this particular circle algorithm, ours is in assembly language, but this one should be fast enough for most. If it isn't, give us the stuff you are using it for and we'll give you ours. =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= þ Line algorithms There are many ways to draw a line on the computer. I will describe one and give you two. (The second one you can figure out for yourselves; it is based on the first one but is faster) The first thing you need to do is pass what you want the line to look like to your line procedure. What I have done is said that x1,y1 is the first point on the screen, and x2,y2 is the second point. We also pass the color to the procedure. (Remember the screens top left hand corner is (0,0); see Part 1) Ie. o (X1,Y1) ooooooooo ooooooooo oooooooo (X2,Y2) Again, sorry about my drawings ;-) To find the length of the line, we say the following : [Pascal] XLength = ABS (x1-x2) YLength = ABS (y1-y2) [C++] xlength = abs(x1-x2); ylength = abs(y1-y2); The ABS function means that whatever the result, it will give you an absolute, or posotive, answer. At this stage I set a variable stating wheter the difference between the two x's are negative, zero or posotive. (I do the same for the y's) If the difference is zero, I just use a loop keeping the two with the zero difference posotive, then exit. If neither the x's or y's have a zero difference, I calculate the X and Y slopes, using the following two equations : [Pascal] Xslope = Xlength / Ylength Yslope = Ylength / Xlength [C++] [Note: C++ is significantly different here. I had to add special divide by zero checking. C++ doesn't like x/0. I also added in type-casting which might not have been necessary. :)] if ((xlength != 0) && (ylength != 0)) { xslope = (float)xlength/(float)ylength; yslope = (float)ylength/(float)xlength; } else { xslope = 0.0; yslope = 0.0; } As you can see, the slopes are real numbers. NOTE : XSlope = 1 / YSlope Now, there are two ways of drawing the lines : X = XSlope * Y Y = YSlope * X The question is, which one to use? if you use the wrong one, your line will look like this : o o o Instead of this : ooo ooo ooo Well, the solution is as follows : *\``³``/* ***\³/*** ----+---- ***/³\*** */``³``\* If the slope angle is in the area of the stars (*) then use the first equation, if it is in the other section (`) then use the second one. What you do is you calculate the variable on the left hand side by putting the variable on the right hand side in a loop and solving. Below is our finished line routine : [Pascal] Procedure Line (x1,y1,x2,y2:integer;col:byte); VAR x,y,xlength,ylength,dx,dy:integer; xslope,yslope:real; BEGIN xlength:=abs (x1-x2); if (x1-x2)<0 then dx:=-1; if (x1-x2)=0 then dx:=0; if (x1-x2)>0 then dx:=+1; ylength:=abs (y1-y2); if (y1-y2)<0 then dy:=-1; if (y1-y2)=0 then dy:=0; if (y1-y2)>0 then dy:=+1; if (dy=0) then BEGIN if dx<0 then for x:=x1 to x2 do putpixel (x,y1,col); if dx>0 then for x:=x2 to x1 do putpixel (x,y1,col); exit; END; if (dx=0) then BEGIN if dy<0 then for y:=y1 to y2 do putpixel (x1,y,col); if dy>0 then for y:=y2 to y1 do putpixel (x1,y,col); exit; END; xslope:=xlength/ylength; yslope:=ylength/xlength; if (yslope/xslope<1) and (yslope/xslope>-1) then BEGIN if dx<0 then for x:=x1 to x2 do BEGIN y:= round (yslope*x); putpixel (x,y,col); END; if dx>0 then for x:=x2 to x1 do BEGIN y:= round (yslope*x); putpixel (x,y,col); END; END ELSE BEGIN if dy<0 then for y:=y1 to y2 do BEGIN x:= round (xslope*y); putpixel (x,y,col); END; if dy>0 then for y:=y2 to y1 do BEGIN x:= round (xslope*y); putpixel (x,y,col); END; END; END; [C++] void Line2(int x1, int y1, int x2, int y2, int col) { int x, y, xlength, ylength, dx, dy; float xslope, yslope; xlength = abs(x1-x2); if ((x1-x2) < 0) dx = -1; if ((x1-x2) == 0) dx = 0; if ((x1-x2) > 0) dx = +1; ylength = abs(y1-y2); if ((y1-y2) < 0) dy = -1; if ((y1-y2) == 0) dy = 0; if ((y1-y2) > 0) dy = +1; if (dy == 0) { if (dx < 0) for (x=x1; x 0) for (x=x2; x 0) for (y=y2; y -1)) { if (dx < 0) for (x=x1; x 0) for (x=x2; x 0) for (y=x2; y0 then sgn:=+1; if a<0 then sgn:=-1; if a=0 then sgn:=0; end; procedure line(a,b,c,d,col:integer); var u,s,v,d1x,d1y,d2x,d2y,m,n:real; i:integer; begin u:= c - a; v:= d - b; d1x:= SGN(u); d1y:= SGN(v); d2x:= SGN(u); d2y:= 0; m:= ABS(u); n := ABS(v); IF NOT (M>N) then BEGIN d2x := 0 ; d2y := SGN(v); m := ABS(v); n := ABS(u); END; s := INT(m / 2); FOR i := 0 TO round(m) DO BEGIN putpixel(a,b,col); s := s + n; IF not (s 0) return +1; else if (a < 0) return -1; else return 0; } void Line(int a, int b, int c, int d, int col) { long u,s,v,d1x,d1y,d2x,d2y,m,n; int i; u = c-a; v = d-b; d1x = sgn(u); d1y = sgn(v); d2x = sgn(u); d2y = 0; m = abs(u); n = abs(v); if (m<=n) { d2x = 0; d2y = sgn(v); m = abs(v); n = abs(u); } s = (int)(m / 2); for (i=0;i= m) { s -= m; a += d1x; b += d1y; } else { a += d2x; b += d2y; } } } This routine is very fast, and should meet almost all of your requirements (ASPHYXIA used it for quite a while before we made our new one.) In the end program, both the new line routine and the circle routine are tested. A few of the procedures of the first parts are also used. Line and circle routines may seem like fairly trivial things, but they are a vital component of many programs, and you may like to look up other methods of drawing them in books in the library (I know that here at the varsity they have books for doing this kind of stuff all over the place) A good line routine to look out for is the Bressenhams line routine ... there is a Bressenhams circle routine too ... I have documentaiton for them if anybody is interested, they are by far some of the fastest routines you will use. =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= þ In closing Varsity has started again, so I am (shock) going to bed before three in the morning, so my quote this week wasn't written in the same wasted way my last weeks one was (For last week's one, I had gotten 8 hours sleep in 3 days, and thought up and wrote the quote at 2:23 am before I fell asleep.) [ "What does it do?" she asks. "It's a computer," he replies. "Yes, dear, but what does it do?" "It ..er.. computes! It's a computer." "What does it compute?" "What? Er? Um. Numbers! Yes, numbers!" He smiles worriedly. "Why?" "Why? Well ..um.. why?" He starts to sweat. "I mean, is it just something to dust around, or does it actually do something useful?" "Um...you can call other computers with it!" Hope lights up his eyes. "So you can get programs from other computers!" "I see. Tell me, what do these programs do?" "Do? I don't think I fol..." "I see. They compute. Numbers. For no particular reason." He withers under her gaze. "Yes, but..." She smiles, and he trails off, defeated. She takes another look at the thing. "Although," she says, with a strange look in her eyes. He looks up, an insane look of hope on his face. "Does it come in pink?" she asks. ] - Grant Smith Tue 27 July, 1993 9:35 pm. See you next time, - Denthor =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-  circle and line procedures by xqtr Procedure Circle1(x1, y1, x2, y2 : integer; color : byte; Var Image: TScreenImage); Var r,y,x,d : Integer; Begin r := (x2 - x1) Div 2; y := r; d := -r; Image[y1][x1+r].Char:='*'; For x := 10 to trunc((r / Sqrt(2))*10) Do Begin d := d + (2*x)-1; if ( d >= 0 ) Then Begin y := y - 1; d := d - 2* y; End; Image[y1+y][x1+x]Char:='*'; End; End; procedure Line(x1, y1, x2, y2 : integer; color : byte; Var Image: TScreenImage; C:Char); var i, deltax, deltay, numpixels, d, dinc1, dinc2, x, xinc1, xinc2, y, yinc1, yinc2 : integer; begin { Calculate deltax and deltay for initialisation } deltax := abs(x2 - x1); deltay := abs(y2 - y1); { Initialize all vars based on which is the independent variable } if deltax >= deltay then begin { x is independent variable } numpixels := deltax + 1; d := (2 * deltay) - deltax; dinc1 := deltay Shl 1; dinc2 := (deltay - deltax) shl 1; xinc1 := 1; xinc2 := 1; yinc1 := 0; yinc2 := 1; end else begin { y is independent variable } numpixels := deltay + 1; d := (2 * deltax) - deltay; dinc1 := deltax Shl 1; dinc2 := (deltax - deltay) shl 1; xinc1 := 0; xinc2 := 1; yinc1 := 1; yinc2 := 1; end; { Make sure x and y move in the right directions } if x1 > x2 then begin xinc1 := - xinc1; xinc2 := - xinc2; end; if y1 > y2 then begin yinc1 := - yinc1; yinc2 := - yinc2; end; { Start drawing at } x := x1; y := y1; { Draw the pixels } for i := 1 to numpixels do begin Image[y][x].Char:=C; Image[y][x].Attr:=Color; if d < 0 then begin d := d + dinc1; x := x + xinc1; y := y + yinc1; end else begin d := d + dinc2; x := x + xinc2; y := y + yinc2; end; end; end;